Bontebok

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Klipspringer
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Bontebok

Post by Klipspringer »

BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR THE BONTEBOK
Damaliscus pygargus pygargus
IN SOUTH AFRICA

https://cisp.cachefly.net/assets/articl ... on1567.pdf


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Bontebok (Damaliscus pygargus pygargus) is endemic to the East Coast Renosterveld bioregion within the
Cape Floristic Region (CFR) of the Western Cape. Evidence from fossil records indicate that past climatic and
habitat change promoted the splitting of D. pygargus into the two separately classified subspecies known
today; blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi) and bontebok (Damaliscus pygargus pygargus). Each
subspecies exhibits different behavioural and morphological traits including body markings and hide colours.
Historically, the natural ranges of the two subspecies did not overlap, with blesbok occurring widely on the
grasslands of Gauteng, Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga and Free State and bontebok restricted to the coastal
plains in the southern CFR. Here the numbers of bontebok declined to near extinction due to hunting and
human settlement, in the 1800s, to a known population of 20 animals in the Bredasdorp area. As a result a
national park was proclaimed to protect the remaining bontebok and their numbers increased. Worldwide,
habitat loss and the loss of genetic integrity by anthropogenic hybridisation currently threaten many species.
Wildlife species are extensively translocated outside of their historic distribution ranges onto private land as a
part of wildlife management and commercial breeding practices in South Africa. This has at times led to
multiple species on the same property outside their natural ranges. Thus, the two subspecies (bontebok and
blesbok) have come into contact and hybridized, a case which would not have happened naturally as they
historically had largely non-overlapping ranges with different ecosystems.

Bontebok now occur in a number of small, isolated populations across the country and are threatened by low
genetic diversity, population fragmentation, habitat fragmentation and hybridisation with blesbok and
blesbok/bontebok hybrids. In order to mitigate the historic and current threats to bontebok and conserve this
iconic species an integrated management strategy, applied through collaborative partnerships between
stakeholders, is urgently required. This would encourage public support, ensure genetic diversity within the
meta-population and sustainable utilisation of the species by the private sector.

The bontebok population within the Natural Distribution Range (NDR) and Extended Distribution Range (EDR)
in the Western Cape comprises approximately 1650 individuals. An approximately further 7500 individuals
survive on properties outside the NDR of the species throughout South Africa. Bontebok are tolerant of human
activities and adapt to changes in the landscape and readily utilise transformed landscapes with old fields of
short grass areas. The bontebok is listed as Vulnerable (D1, B2a) on the International Union for Conservation
of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, as a Protected Species under the Threatened or Protected
Species (TOPS) regulations in terms of Section 56(1) d of the National Environmental Management:
Biodiversity Act (Act 10 of 2004), and on Appendix II under the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The non-detrimental finding (NDF) for bontebok issued
by the Scientific Authority recommended a BMP-S to improve the management and monitoring of the
subspecies.
In 2011, an inter-agency collaboration between South African National Parks, CapeNature and the National
Department of Environmental Affairs was initiated to develop a bontebok BMP-S to ensure the long-term
survival of the species in nature. Engagements with a variety of stakeholders took place and identified threats
and challenges to the persistence of bontebok. These include human-mediated hybridisation and loss of
genetic diversity, habitat loss, disease and parasite problems and the risk of unintended hybridisation as well
as the lack of a meta-population management plan. The selection of the bontebok for a BMP-S is based on
the recommendations from the NDF, its threat status, the need for a meta-population strategy and inter-agency
collaboration on shared objectives for the conservation of the species, standardised monitoring, cooperative
research, and increased participation by landowners.

Both internal and external stakeholder consultations developed the following desired state for the bontebok:
“The conservation of a secured and well managed* bontebok meta-population.”

* Well managed: an increase in pure Bontebok numbers especially in their indigenous range, sustainable use of habitat and species, securing genetic integrity, researched and regulated to inform decision making and planning.

This desired state is aimed at creating a long term vision for successful conservation of this species and this is to be achieved by a set of associated objectives:
 To conserve the genetic integrity and diversity of bontebok;
 To prevent further habitat loss and habitat degradation, and establish and maintain historic habitat connectivity;
 To establish and maintain effective communication and awareness between and among stakeholders; and
 To investigate and conduct research aimed at supporting adaptive management and the implementation of actions to promote and ensure bontebok conservation.

The implementation of the bontebok BMP-S will have the following benefits:
1. Ensuring the bontebok population inside and outside (nationally) the NDR increases and is resilient to threats faced;
2. Ensuring that harvesting and off-takes of bontebok are sustainable;
3. Scientific sound meta-population management is implemented and through this the full extent of genetic diversity is represented throughout the population;
4. To facilitate the establishment and maintenance of a National Database to advise on the status of populations;
5. Identify priority conservation land for bontebok conservation within the NDR;
6. Promote collaboration and cooperation between government agencies as well as between government and the private sector;
7. Coordinated management actions; and
8. Identify accountable parties and clearly define roles and responsibilities.

The anticipated outcomes of the BMP-S are as follows:
1. The management of the bontebok population inside and outside (nationally) the NDR to ensure the long term survival of this species;
2. A co-ordinated national approach to bontebok conservation both in- and outside of the NDR in terms of management, monitoring and research;
3. The halt of the loss of habitat and ultimately ensuring a steady increase in conserved habitat and rehabilitation of degraded areas for reintroduction of bontebok especially within, but also outside the NDR;
4. Highlight research and communication priorities and identify appropriate parties to implement actions;
5. A National Database of population distribution and national testing and profiling protocols for bontebok;
6. The identification and immediate elimination of hybrids of this species to maintain the economic and conservation value of bontebok; and
7. Promotion of bontebok as an iconic flagship conservation species for Renosterveld vegetation, the CFR and the World Heritage Sites found there.

The Fynbos Biome comprises more than 120 different vegetation types, and there are four different types of
Renosterveld in the NDR of the bontebok: Western-, Central- and Eastern-Rûens Shale Renosterveld and
Rûens Silcrete Renosterveld. Today, this Renosterveld is highly fragmented with fewer than 50 fragments over
100 ha remaining. Before human settlement in the region, this vegetation type supported large numbers of big
game, including black rhino, eland, the now extinct bluebuck and quagga, and bontebok. Sadly, the extirpation
of the large herbivores and severe transformation of the landscape has allowed extensive areas to become
degraded. The bontebok is recognised as an iconic flagship species for the protection and conservation of
Renosterveld. The Biodiversity Management Plan for the bontebok provides the opportunity for the
conservation of both the bontebok antelope and the critically endangered renosterveld vegetation type on
which they naturally occur. It serves as a reference to the management and development of the identified
actions to enable stakeholders to contribute to the desired outcome of ensuring the long term survival of the
subspecies in nature and thereby ensuring the sustainable use of the bontebok by private land owners
participating in the meta-population strategy.

The bontebok BMP-S focusses on implementing a meta-population strategy and associated conservation actions aimed at ensuring that bontebok populations are and stay genetically diverse, and overall metapopulation fitness and resilience within and outside the NDR is enhanced and maintained in the long-term.


Klipspringer
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Re: Bontebok

Post by Klipspringer »

1.1 Bontebok
Bontebok is a medium-sized antelope with a multi-coloured coat, is endemic to the Western Cape and was
historically confined to the grassy southern coastal plains and Renosterveld of the CFR. Population numbers
of bontebok reached a critical low in the 1930s when only approximately 17 animals remained. The Bontebok
National Park was proclaimed in the Bredasdorp district in 1931 to protect the species (Barnard and van der
Walt 1961). Although bontebok numbers increased to around 100, population growth thereafter halted as the
habitat of the park was found to be unsuitable for this species. In the 1940s, five animals were sent to
Grahamstown to establish a population elsewhere in the then Cape Province as a back-up against the loss of
the populations in the Bredasdorp area (Van Rensburg 1975).
In 1961, the Bontebok National Park moved to the present site in the Swellendam area and the bontebok were
transferred from the original park as well as 16 animals from Grahamstown (Thornkloof Farm). Additional
animals from Thornkloof were also sent to De Hoop Nature Reserve and Cape Point Nature Reserve (now
Table Mountain National Park). In the ‘new’ Bontebok National Park, numbers increased to a maximum of over
400 in the 1980s with the current population being approximately 260, with a further 197 in other National
Parks. Bontebok National Park can no longer expand in size to accommodate a larger bontebok population.


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Re: Bontebok

Post by Lisbeth »

Image (c) Mel

Calf

Image(c) Mel

Image (c) Mel


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Klipspringer
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Re: Bontebok

Post by Klipspringer »

Today bontebok occur in a number of protected areas both in and outside the NDR.
These include Bontebok, Table Mountain and West Coast National Parks (all genetically tested), De Hoop
Nature Reserve and Denel Overberg Test Range (largest subpopulation within the natural range), and
Tsolwana Nature Reserve in the Eastern Cape Province.
The total estimated population of Bontebok on government-managed protected areas is 885 individuals. Of
these, 457 occur in the South African National Parks’ (SANParks) four parks (Agulhas, Bontebok, Table
Mountain and West Coast National Parks). The combined population for De Hoop Nature Reserve and the
Overberg Test Range is estimated at about 444 individuals. Estimates place the population number within the
indigenous range at ± 905 animals across both protected areas (Table 2.1.3) and on private land.
Approximately 2610 animals occur in the Western Cape Province and a total of approximately 9150 is
distributed throughout South Africa (Figure 2.1.3).


Interesting: Table Mountain National Park is outside the natural distribution range NDR, but there are 93 animals


Due to the status and limited availability of habitat for bontebok within the NDR, benign introductions are required.
This range is referred to as the extended natural distribution range (ENDR).
NDR.jpg
NDR.jpg (76.23 KiB) Viewed 451 times


Klipspringer
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Re: Bontebok

Post by Klipspringer »

2.1.5 Life history and reproduction
Bontebok are sedentary-dispersed in that populations segregate into female and bachelor herds with
permanent territorial networks (Estes 1992). Female home ranges typically include 2 – 3 territories and
territorial males almost always accompany a herd. Territorial males tolerate yearling males, while large
bachelor herds form without fixed home ranges, inhibiting dispersal. Male territories range from 4 – 40
hectares with an average spacing of 300 meters between males. Territories are resource based, in other
words, grazing lawn territories are demarcated with dung middens. This is only done by mature males, who
only defend activity centers, leaving large areas where bachelor males can circulate with little or no
harassment. Social structure consists of the territorial males, female herds and bachelor groups. Young males
leave the female herd of their own accord at 12 months and can remain solitary but usually join bachelor
groups until sexual maturity around 5 years of age. Older males are displaced from their territories and often
find refuge within a bachelor group. There is no hierarchy in a bachelor group and fighting is rare. Territorial
battles between rams are ritualistic and bouts end when either ram walks away or when one is chased off.
This is true of large populations in natural free roaming areas but in smaller populations with restricted area,
ram deaths due to fighting are known to occur, as well as rams killing their own male offspring (M. D’Alton
2016, personal communication).
The bontebok is a short-day seasonal breeder and the conception rate is influenced by rainfall before the
breeding season (Novellie 1986). Gestation is approximately 240 days and single lambs are born in spring
and early summer when females do not isolate from herds. Bontebok have a follower-calf strategy – calves
are not hidden but follow mothers within minutes (Skinner and Chimimba 2005). Females become sexually
mature at just over 2 years of age and have their first lambs at about 3 years old. A hierarchy exists in the
female herd and status is obtained by threat postures and battling with horns. Female herds typically consist
of 8 females and their yearlings and are visited by males during the breeding season (Skinner and Chimimba
2005). In captivity bontebok have been known to live for up to 15 years.


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Re: Bontebok

Post by Richprins »

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